Baroque Tuning (c. 1600–1750)

The Baroque era was a period of intense tuning experimentation. Meantone temperaments remained standard for much of the early Baroque, but the growing desire to modulate to distant keys — particularly in Germany — created pressure for new systems. Well temperaments emerged as the practical solution: unequal temperament systems that made all 24 major and minor keys usable while preserving key-specific color. J.S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier (1722) is the most famous exploration of this multi-key possibility.

Standard Temperaments in the Baroque Era

Werckmeister III The most influential Baroque well temperament (1691). All 24 keys usable; keys near C major are purer. Standard reference for German Baroque organ and keyboard repertoire. Bach/Lehman Reconstructed from the WTC title page (Lehman, 2005). Gives each of Bach's 48 preludes and fugues a unique tonal character. Widely used for Bach harpsichord and organ performance. Kirnberger III Developed by a Bach student; purer common keys than Werckmeister III. Commonly used for Bach-adjacent German Baroque repertoire. Vallotti Francesco Vallotti's 1754 well temperament — moderate, balanced, well-suited to Italian late Baroque and early Classical keyboard repertoire. Quarter-Comma Meantone Continued as standard for Italian and French early Baroque (Monteverdi, Couperin, Lully). Pure major thirds in common keys; wolf fifth limits modulation. Neidhardt Johann Georg Neidhardt's temperament family (1724-1732) — historically important as systematic well temperaments contemporary with Bach, ranging from meantone-adjacent to near-equal. Young Thomas Young's 1800 well temperament — slightly outside the Baroque period but historically positioned as the transition toward equal temperament. Kellner Herbert Anton Kellner's proposed Bach temperament — an alternative reconstruction emphasizing mathematical structure in the WTC tuning.

Historical Context

The Baroque era is defined by a tension between meantone purity (beautiful in the common keys, disastrous in remote keys) and well temperament flexibility (all keys usable, each with distinct character). Italian and French Baroque composers generally preferred meantone-adjacent tuning through the early 18th century. German composers — particularly in the Lutheran church tradition — drove the development of well temperaments that allowed all 24 keys. Andreas Werckmeister's Musicalische Temperatur (1691) introduced Werckmeister III, the most widely adopted well temperament. Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1721-1783, a Bach student) developed Kirnberger III with purer common keys. Bradley Lehman's 2005 reconstruction of the Well-Tempered Clavier title page ornament produced the Bach/Lehman temperament — now one of the most debated and widely used temperaments for Bach performance.

Representative Repertoire

Claudio Monteverdi's operas (1607-1643) were conceived for meantone-tuned continuo instruments. Henry Purcell (1659-1695), Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707), and Francois Couperin (1668-1733) composed in meantone or early well temperament. J.S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier (Books I and II, 1722/1742) — 48 preludes and fugues in all 24 major and minor keys — is the most direct evidence of well temperament practice. George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) worked in both meantone and well temperament depending on context. Antonio Vivaldi's violin concertos (1711-1740s) demonstrate the Italian preference for meantone-adjacent tuning.

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Historical Era Sequence

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All Temperaments Note Frequencies Tone Generator Keyboard — Baroque